1 


ITA. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  INTERIOR 

BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 


BULLETIN,  1919,  No.  57 


EDUCATIONAL  CONDITIONS 
IN  JAPAN 


By 

WALTER  A.  IVraNTGOMERY 

SPECIALIST  DM  FOREIGN  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEMS 


[Advance  Sheets  from  the  Biennial  Survey  of  Elducation.  1916-1918] 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 
1919 


ADDITIONAL  COPIES 
OF  THIS  PUBLICATtON  MAY  BE  PROCITRED  FROM 
THE  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  DOCUMENTS 

government  printing  office 
M’ASinNGTON,  D.  C. 

AT 

5 CENTS  PER  COPY 


EDUCATIONAL  CONDITIONS  IN  JAPAN. 
By 

Walteu  a.  Montgomeby, 

Specialist  in  Foreign  Educational  Systems. 


Contents. — General  educational  activities — Elementary  instruction — Middle  schools — High 
.schools  for  girls — Higher  schools  — Normal  schools — Special  schools  — Vocational 
schools — Technical  continuation  schools — Higher  education — Japanese  educational 
work  in  Formosa. 


GENERAL  EDUCATIONAL  ACTIVITIES.' 

The  chief  educational  undertakings  during  the  year  covered  by 
the  report  were  necessitated  by  the  urgent  economic  conditions  of 
the  Japanese  Empire,  which  were,  as  those  of  all  other  countries 
of  the  world,  profoundly  affected  by  the  war.  The  immediate  prob- 
lem, as  avowed  by  the  minister  of  education,  was  to  cultivate  in 
every  line  of  governmental  activity  the  powers  of  the  Japanese  people 
as  directed  toward  the  material  development  of  national  resources. 
Every  opportunity,  such  as  conferences  of  local  school  and  secular 
authorities,  of  school  direetors,  and  lecture  institutes,  was  system- 
atically utilized  to  emphasize  essential  points  in  national  education, 
and  in  turn  to  obtain  the  mature  opinions  of  all  classes  and  individ- 
uals qualified  to  speak.  A board  appointed  by  the  Department  of 
Education  investigated  the  educational  and  social  conditions  of  the 
leading  countries  of  the  world,  and  reports  of  their  findings  were 
published  at  regular  inteiwals,  being  sent  to  all  local  authorities, 
civil  and  educational,  to  the  heads  of  all  educational  institutions 
above  the  elementary  grade,  and  to  all  persons  connected  in  an 
administrative  capacity  with  education. 

As  was  to  be  expected  from  the  express  avowal  of  educational  pur- 
poses, the  progress  in  technical  education  was  most  marked.  Indeed, 
Japan’s  unique  educational  fusion  of  traditional  training  in  the 
national  humanistic  studies  with  that  in  modern  science,  precludes 
changes  in  any  save  the  latter.  Additional  technical  schools  wore 
established  in  a number  of  centers  under  the  direct  control  of  tlie 
department;  and  vigorous  measures  were  taken  to  establish  close 
and  helpful  relations  between  them  and  local  industries  and  business 
interests.  A cardinal  purpose  of  these  schools  is  to  train  competent 
teachers  rapidly,  and  to  distribute  them  in  parts  of  the  Empire  where 
their  need  is  felt  to  be  most  urgent. 

The  activity  of  the  several  groups  of  educational  workers  did  not 
slacken  during  the  year  covered.  Conferences  were  held  of  directors 

* This  study  is  based  upon  the  43d  annual  report  of  the  Minister  of  State  for  Education. 
1916—16.  Translated  and  published  by  the  Department  of  Education,  Tokyo,  1918. 

133405'’— 19  3 


4 


BIENNIAL  SUEVEY  OF  EDUCATION,  1!*16-1918. 


of  higlier  schools,  directors  of  special  schools  of  medicine,  directors 
of  special  technical  schools,  directors  of  higher  normal  schools  for 
men  and  for  women,  and  directors  of  middle  schools.  In  accordance 
with  the  centralized  Jajianese  system,  cei’tain  questions  deemed  most 
urgent  of  solution  were  selected  in  advance  and  submitted  to  each 
group  for  discussion;  as  a result,  many  helpful  suggestions  were 
forwarded  to  the  minister  for  his  consideration.  Besides,  the  regular 
lecture  institutes  for  teachers  of  elementary  grade  were  held  in  the 
duly  prescribed  rotation  of  time  and  place,  at  which  systematic  in- 
struction was  imparted  in  the  subjects  deemed  most  needed  for  the 
particular  group.  Especial  stress  was  naturally  laid  upon  the  insti- 
tutes for  teachers  of  industry,  agi'iculture,  and  commerce.  Both  in 
subject  and  methods,  war-time  needs  were  had  in  view  throughout. 

A far-reaching  innovation  was  the  initiation  of  a lecture  institute 
for  school  insiiectors  designed  “ to  impart  general  knowledge  of  the 
system  of  elementary'  education  and  of  pedagogical  administration  to 
persons  having  direct  supervision  over  local  education,  such  as  pre- 
fectural  and  district  inspectoi-s.  Applicants  are  admitted  upon  the 
recommendation  of  the  governmental  officials  of  the  respective  locali- 
ties.’’ The  subjects  taught  are  of  interest  for  their  practical  nature: 
National  morality,  pedagogics,  educational  administration,  and  the 
examination  of  elementaij  school  books  dealing  with  morality,  the 
Japanese  language  and  history,  school  hygiene,  and  practice  in 
teaching  art,  science,  manual  arts,  and  gymnastics. 

A lecture  institute  on  school  hygiene  was  also  initiated  with  the 
imiqiose  of  training  intensively  persons  having  charge  of  school  sani- 
tation. Besides  the  stiuctly  technical  branches,  such  vital  topics  as 
hygienics,  epidemiology,  educational  pathology,  treatment  of  defec- 
tive children,  theoretical  gymnastics,  and  school  sanitary^  administra- 
tion were  emphasized.  As  going  to  show  the  unique  solidarity’  of 
Japanese  education  and  as  a model  of  educational  cooperation,  it  is 
of  interest  to  note  that  the  lectures  for  tliese  institutes  Avere  drawn 
from  all  the  higher  institutions,  such  as  the  Imperial  UniA’ersity  of 
Tokyo,  related  higher  technical  schools,  the  higher  normal  schools, 
and  the  imperial  colleges  of  medicine. 

In  this  connection  may  be  mentioned  the  remarkable  work,  both 
in  theory  and  in  popular  relief  ivork  actually  done,  of  the  institute 
for  the  study  of  infectious  diseases.  Though  not  essentially  peila- 
gogical,  the  preeminent  A alue  of  this  institute  to  national  education 
was  recognized  during  the  year  covered  in  the  report,  and  it  ivas  init 
definitely  under  the  control  of  the  minister  of  education,  and  formally’ 
annexed  to  the  Imperial  University  of  Toky’o.  Examinations  of 
pathological  specimens  submitted,  investigation  of  locally  prevalent 
diseases,  treatment  of  patients,  dissection  of  subjects,  preparation  of 
serums,  and  holding  lecture  institutes  ivere  parts  of  the  manifold 


EDUCATIONAL,  CONDITIONS  IN  JAPAN. 


5 


activities  of  this  organization.  Under  the  system  of  sending  promis- 
ing students  for  study  abroad,  formally  inaugurated  in  1912,  a total 
of  13  were  sent  during  the  year  1915-16  to  the  United  States,  9 to 
England,  and  1 each  to  China  and  Switzerland.  Courses  in  applied 
sciences  were  almost  exclusively  their  chosen  fields. 

A movement  to  foster  respect  for  elementary  education  is  seen  in 
the  imperial  regulations  I’elating  to  letters  of  merit  in  elementary 
education,  designed  to  honor  meritorious  persons  connected  with  that 
branch.  They  are  liestowed  by  the  minister  of  education,  on  local 
evidence  and  the  recommendation  of  a special  committee,  and  are 
published  in  the  Official  Gazette.  The  recipients  are  elementary 
school  teachers,  the  heads  of  municipalities,  members  of  elementary 
school  committees,  and  school  physicians.  During  the  year  1915-16 
this  honor  was  received  by  48  persons. 

The  committee  for  the  investigation  of  school  books  and  charts  is 
another  manifestation  of  the  efficiency  which  prevails  in  all  depart- 
ments of  Japanese  education.  Appointed  by  and  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  minister  of  education,  it  works  in  three  sections,  tlio 
first  examining  and  recasting  books,  charts,  and  manuscripts  dealing 
with  ethics,  the  second  with  history,  and  the  third  with  the  Japanese 
language. 

ELEMENTARY  INSTRUCTION. 

Elementary  .schools  are  divided  into  ordinary  elementai’y  and 
higher  elementary,  the  former  obligatory  upon  cities,  towns,  or  vil- 
lages, and  extending  over  six  years ; and  the  latter  covering  two  years 
additional,  or  three  years,  as  local  boards  may  decree,  and  provide 
funds  for  maintenance.  Supplementary  courses  in  continuation 
subjects,  or  in  the  development  of  subjects  already  taught,  may  be 
established  by  the  approval  of  the  minister  of  education.  A third 
type  of  elementary  school  is  that  in  which,  under  the  same  roof,  the 
ordinary  and  the  higher  elementary  courses  of  one  or  more  years  are 
conjointly  established.  It  is  an  interesting  adaptation  on  oriental 
soil  of  the  school  consolidation  movement,  the  progress  of  which  has 
been  so  marked  in  the  rural  districts  of  certain  States  of  the  Union 
during  the  past  few  years. 

A significant  feature  is  that  as  compared  with  the  figures  of  the 
preceding  year,  the  schools  of  the  individual  type  decreased,  the 
ordinary  elementary  schools  by  224,  the  higher  schools  by  23.  In 
those  of  composite  character,  the  mixture  of  ordinary  and  higher 
elementary  schools,  there  was  an  increase  of  267,  a step  evidently 
recommended  on  the  scores  both  of  convenience  of  access  and  econ- 
omy of  maintenance.  In  1915-16  there  were  in  attendance  upon  the 
ordinary  elementary  schools  5,840,268  boys  and  girls,  a decrease  of 
156,000  from  the  preceding  year.  This  perhaps  may  be  explained 


6 


BIEXNIAL  SURVEY  0I-’  EDUCATION,  lill6-1918. 


on  the  assumption  that  even  in  Japan  tlie  well-adjninisterecl  law  of  | 
compulsory  elementary  school  attendance  had  to  yield  in  face  of  the  1 
heavy  economic  pressure  upon  the  body  of  the  people  and  the  demand 
of  the  av  erage  family  for  the  wages  of  the  children.  The  total  number 
of  those  who  had  comjDleted  the  ordinary  elementai‘y  school  cour^^e, 
ami  were  in  attendance  upon  the  higher  elementary  course  was  1,773.- 
0il9,  showing  a decrease  of  24,000  from  the  preceding  year,  perhaps  to 
Ije  explained  on  the  same  assumption  as  above.  Somewhat  fewer  than 
100,000  pupils  were  allowed  to  postpone  school  attendance,  and 
nearly  125,000  were  exempted  from  obligatory  school  attendance. 
The  average  percentage,  for  both  sexes,  of  attendance  upon  pre- 
scribed course  of  instruction  makes  an  even  better  showing  than  for 
the  preceding  year,  being  98.47  as  compared  with  98.26. 

Teachers  in  elementary  schools. — In  1915-16,  99,292  men  and  42,830 
women  taught  in  the  ordinary  elementary  schools  of  Japan,  an  in- 
crease of  nearly  2,000  men  and  slightly  more  than  1,000  women.  In 
the  higher  elementary  schools  17,890  men  and  2,980  women  were 
teachers,  the  numbers  being  practically  static. 

Salurles. — Eleven  categories  of  teachers  in  elementally  schools,  ac- 
cording to  the  salary  received,  show  salaries  ranging  from  5 j^en  ^ 

( probationaiy)  to  105  yen  monthly,  the  three  categories  which  re- 
ceive from  10  to  25  yen  including  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  total. 

regions. — In  accordance  with  the  law  relating  to  pensions  for  re- 
tired teachers  and  to  the  families  of  deceased  teachers  in  elementary 
schools,  1,741,959.367  yen  was  apportioned  for  pensions,  and  1,715,- 
007,397  yen  was  expended,  a marked  increase  over  the  preceding  year. 

In  addition  an  educational  fund  was  created  in  1916  for  the  relief 
of  public  elementary  teachers.  Loans  to  municipal  bodies,  appro- 
priations for  the  encouragement  of  elementary  schools,  for  needy 
children,  for  prizes  and  bonuses  for  regular  attendance,  for  salaries 
of  elementary  teachers  in  remote  districts,  for  the  encouragement  and 
investigation  of  poi)ular  education,  and  for  all  purposes  approved 
by  the  minister  of  education  come  within  the  purview  of  this  most 
useful  fund.  A stock  fund  for  additional  salaries  to  teachers  in 
elementary  schools  was  created  in  1900  by  special  law  and  by  im- 
jierial  ordinance,  such  relief  to  be  recommended  by  local  authorities, 
and  approved  by  the  minister  of  education.  Under  these  provisions 
about  70,000  teachers  received  slightly  over  2,500,000  yen  in  addi- 
tion to  regidar  salaries. 

MIDDLE  SCHOOLS. 

Leaving  the  elementary  school  of  both  grades,  the  student  is 
stiuck  with  the  small  numbers  enrolled  in  the  middle  schools,  both 
public  and  private,  only  141,215,  or  4 per  cent  of  the  number  in  the 


' The  yen  is  worth  abent  46  cents. 


EDUCATIONAIi  CONDITIONS  IN  JAPAN, 


7 


elementary,  being  listed  for  1915-16.  No  cluuiges  in  courses  or  ad- 
ministration, and  an  increase  of  only  2,000  pupils  in  attendance  are  to 
be  noted  for  this  grade  of  instruction ; boys  12  years  and  over,  gradu- 
ates of  ordinary"  elementary  schools  are  admitted,  and  the  course 
extends  over  five  years.  The  situation  is  significant  of  the  essen- 
tially aristocratic  character  of  Japanese  education.  The  clientele  of 
the  middle  schools  is  exclusively  the  official,  military,  and  wealthy 
merchant  classes,  who  desire  for  their  sons  the  training  necessary 
for  these,  and  the  university  and  other  specialized  careers.  Foi 
their  purposes  the  instruction  and  methods  of  the  middle  schools  are 
admirably  thorough  and  efficient.  The  courses  are  closely  articu- 
lated with  the  advanced  lines  above  mentioned,  and  the  teachers 
are  carefully  selected  for  their  training  and  competence.  Interest- 
ing features  are  the  steady  increase  during  the  past  few  j^ears  of  the 
number  of  foreigners  among  them,  there  being  81  in  1915-16  out  of 
a total  of  6,443,  and  the  subsequent  careers  of  the  graduates  of  regu- 
lar cotu-ses  of  the  public  middle  schools.  Business  and  the  advanced 
special  schools  and  special  technical  schools  have  attracted  over  40 
per  cent  of  the  total  of  nearly  20,000. 

HIGH  SCHOOLS  FOR  GIRLS. 

Corresponding  to  the  middle  schools  for  boys  in  aim  and  govern- 
mental establishment,  but  falling  below  them  in  curriculum,  are  the 
high  schools  for  girls.  Provisions  for  their  establishment  are  identi- 
cal, both  public  and  private,  with  those  for  the  boys’  middle  schools. 
A marked  feature  in  this  division  of  education  was,  for  the  year  cov- 
ered, the  expansion  of  domestic  science  courses,  and  the  further  pro- 
vision made  for  girls’  high  schools  offering  only  domestic  courses, 
and  denominated  officially  “ Domestic  high' schools  for  girls.” 

Those  admitted  to  the  course  must  be  above  the  age  of  12  and  be  graduates 
from  ordinary  elementary  schools,  or  girls  of  equivalent  attainments.  The 
course  of  study  extends  over  four  years,  when  the  graduates  from  ordinary  ele- 
mentary schools  are  admitted ; over  three  years  when  the  applicants  for  admis- 
sion have  completed  the  tirst-j^ear  course  of  higher  elementary  schools ; over  two 
('!•  three  years  when  they  have  completed  the  second-year  course  of  higher  ele- 
mentary schools ; and  over  two  years  when  the  domestic  course  is  taken  after  the 
higher  elementary  school.  Those  who  wish  to  study  one  or  more  subjects  in  the 
domestic  course  may  be  admitted  as  elective  pupils.  Supplementary  courses 
of  not  more  than  two  years  may  be  provided  in  the  regular  high  schools  or 
in  the  domestic  high  schools  for  girls  for  the  benefit  of  their  graduates.  A post- 
graduate course  of  two  or  three  years  may  be  provided  only  in  regular  high 
schools  for  the  benefit  of  those  graduates  who  wish  to  study  some  particular 
subjects  as  their  specialty. 

Similarly  to  the  two  middle  schools  attached  to  the  higher  normals 
for  men  the  Government  maintains  two  high  schools  for  girls  at- 
tached to  the  Tokyo  and  the  Nara  Higher  Normal  School  for  Women. 
Together  they  enrolled,  for  the  year  covered,  abort  900  students,  a 


8 


BIENNIAL  SURVEY  OF  EDUCATION,  1I>16-1918. 


sliglit  incTeu.se  over  tlie  preceding  v'ear.  There  were  also  1C2  public 
high  schools  for  girls,  enrolling  58,009  students,  and  125  pnlilic 
iloinestic  high  schools  for  girls,  enrolling  17,370  students.  Under 
priATxte  management  there  were  59  high  schools  for  girls,  enrolling 
16,889  students,  and  18  domestic  high  schools  for  girls,  enrolling 
2,7-17  students.  A slight  increase  in  all  enrollments  over  that  for 
the  preceding  year  is  seen. 

HIGHER  SCHOOLS. 

A trend  visible  for  the  past  four  years  in  the  higher  schools  is 
noteworthy.  Higher  schools,  as  the  tenn  is  used  in  Japan,  are  sec- 
ondary institutions  for  boys  in  which  preparatory  courses  are  of- 
fered for  entrance  into  the  imperial  universities.  There  are  eight 
such  schools,  located  in  centers  of  population  and  industiy.  As 
originally  contemplated  in  the  ordinance  relating  to  higher  schools 
(1905),  the  higher  schools  were  also  to  provide  special  courses  in 
professional  training,  and  they  did  so  provide  them  until  the  de- 
velopment of  these  into  independent  institutions,  which  then  ranked 
as  special  technical  schools.  With  this,  all  such  appended  courses 
disa|3peared,  during  the  year  under  consideration,  from  the  cur- 
riculum of  the  higher  schools.  For  admission  to  higher  schools, 
graduation  from  middle  schools,  or  the  passing  of  test  examinations 
prescribed,  along  with  careful  physical  examination,  is  required. 
Following,  therefore,  exclusiA^ely  the  narrower  field  of  preparation 
for  the  imperial  universities,  the  Avork  of  the  higher  schools  has 
come  to  be  divided  into  three  departments,  devoted  respectiA^ely  to 
the  preparation  of  students  for  the  college  of  law  or  literature;  for 
the  college  of  pharmacy,  engineering,  science,  or  agriculture ; and 
for  the  college  of  medicine. 

NORMAL  SCHOOLS. 

In  Japan  the  normal  training  of  teachers  is  given  in — 

(1)  Normal  schools  aiming  to  train  teachei's  for  elementary 
schools,  of  which  there  must  be  at  least  one  in  each  prefecture.  They 
admit  to  the  first  section  graduates  of  the  higher  elementary  schools 
of  three-year  courses,  graduates  of  their  own  preparatory  course, 
and  boys  of  15  or  girls  of  11,  at  the  discretion  of  the  director ; and  to 
the  second  section  graduates  of  middle  schools  or  boys  of  17  and  girls 
of  16,  at  the  discretion  of  the  director.  The  courses  in  each  section 
coA^er  one  year. 

2,  {a)  The  tAvo  higher  noiTiial  schools  for  men,  Avhich  train  teach- 
ers for  normal  schools,  middle  schools,  and  girls’  high  schools. 

( h ) The  two  higher  schools  for  women,  ti’aining  teachers  for  girls’ 
normals,  girls’  departments  in  normals,  and  high  schools  for  girls. 

Both  admit  graduates  of  elementary  normal  schools  and  of  public 
and  piTA'ate  middle  schools  on  competitive  examinations.  The 


EDUCATION.^L  COETDITIOS'S  IN’  JAPAIf. 


9 


courses  in  both  are  identical,  except  for  inaniial  arts  and  domestic 
arts  courses,  and  extend  over  three  years. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  higher  normal  schools,  an  elementary  school 
for  practice  teaching  must  be  attached  to  each  elementaiy  normal 
school,  and,  in  the  case  of  normal  schools  admitting  'women,  a kinder- 
garten also.  Under  special  circumstances,  and  ^yith  the  consent  of 
the  minister,  local  authorities  may  permit  the  substitution  of  already 
existent  public  or  private  elementary  schools  or  kindergartens  con- 
venient of  access  in  place  of  the  required  observation  and  practice 
schools  required  by  la'w. 

For  rapid  training  of  teachers  for  technical  schools  a number  of 
institutes  were  founded  in  1915-16  which  were  of  the  nature  of 
schools  attached  to  colleges  of  the  imperial  univei'sities  and  higher 
technical  schools,  and  designed  to  use  the  already  existent  advan- 
tages of  buildings,  laboratories,  and  observation  schools  for  the 
teaching  of  younger  pupils.  Special  ordinances  of  the  Department 
of  Education  allowed  exemption  from  fees  and  expenses  on  the  stu- 
dents contracting  to  serve  as  teachers  in  technical  schools. 

Japan’s  system  of  teacher  training  is  the  result  of  a careful  study 
of  European  institutions.  She  has  borrowed  whatever  she  judged 
best  in  the  educational  polity  of  each  country.  Her  system  is  there- 
fore of  an  essentially  composite  order.  Its  original  features,  how- 
ever, constitute  a valuable  attempt  to  adopt  diverse  elements. 

SPECIAL  SCHOOLS. 

Mention  has  been  made  of  the  development  of  certain  courses, 
originally  incorporated  in  the  curriculum  of  the  higher  schools, 
into  special  courses,  and  later  into  independent  special  schools. 
These  are  designed  to  give  only  advanced  training  in  professional 
subjects;  and  only  men  and  women  are  admitted  who  have  completed 
the  prescribed  curriculum  in  middle  schools,  or  in  high  schools  for 
girls,  with  at  least  a four  years’  course,  and  other  men  and  women 
of  maturity  and  approved  attainments.  In  the  case  of  special 
schools  in  which  fine  arts  and  music  are  taught  admission  is  left  to 
the  decision  of  the  minister  of  education. 

Under  this  important  class  of  schools  the  Government  maintains 
[a)  five  special  schools  of  medicine  at  important  points,  enrolling 
2,375  students  in  1915-16;  (5)  the  Tokyo  School  of  Foreign  Lan- 
guages, enrolling  604  students,  offering  instruction  in  12  languages 
and  extending  over  three  j^ears  or  for  a shorter  course  of  two  years. 
In  response  to  a decided  demand,  a course  in  Portuguese  was  sub- 
stituted in  place  of  Siamese.  The  eni’ollment  of  this  school  was  604 
pupils,  an  increase  oF  14  per  cent  over  the  preceding  year;  (c)  the 
Tokyo  Fine  Arts  School,  enrolling  547  students,  and  the  Tokyo 
Academy  of  Mnsic.  enrolling  593  students,  an  increase  of  12  per 
cent  over  preceding  year. 


10  BIENNIAL  SURVEY  OF  EDUCATION,  101&-1918. 

In  addition  to  these  governmental  schools,  five  public  schools  of 
medicine,  pharmacy,  and  fine  arts  were  maintained  by  communes; 
and  53  in  literature  and  the  sciences  were  maintained  by  private 
supports 

VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS. 

Vocational  schools,  for  the  distinctive  training  of  boys  intending 
to  engage  in  productive  labor  such  as  manufactures,  agriculture,  and 
commerce,  are  of  five  kinds,  technical,  agricultural,  commercial,  nauti- 
cal, and  continuation.  Technical  education  is  olfered  of  primary 
grade,  embracing  practical  subjects  in  crafts,  arts,  and  sciences,  and 
such  subjects  of  study  as  ethics,  Japanese  mathematics,  general  science, 
and  gymnastics.  Elasticity  is  given  these  courses  by  the  addition  of 
other  subjects  demanded  by  local  circumstances,  and  the  dropping 
of  still  others,  except  ethics  and  those  bearing  directly  on  the  branch 
studied.  A subdivision  of  these  is  the  apprentices’  schools,  covering 
not  less  than  six  months  nor  more  than  four  years.  In  the  school 
proper  the  course  is  not  more  than  three  yeai’S. 

Great  flexibility  also  is  allowed  in  the  qualifications  for  admis- 
sion, these  varying  extensively  in  various  localities.  Technical  edu- 
cation of  secondary  grade  is  of  similar  nature  to  the  primary,  but 
more  formal,  less  flexible,  and  more  inclusive  of  the  sciences  and 
the  theoretical  side  of  technical  training.  Schools  of  this  grade  may 
be  attached  to  any  middle  school  of  two  years’  duration,  and  special 
courses  may  be  arranged  for  boys  in  business  or  at  work.  Only  pu- 
pils may  be  admitted  to  this  grade  of  schools  who  have  attained  the 
age  of  14  years,  graduated  from  a higher  elementary  school  of  two 
years’  course,  or  who  possess  equivalent  attainments.  Requirements 
for  teachers  in  this  grade  of  schools  are  also  quite  rigorous.  In 
1915-16  the  number  of  technical  schools  was  9,001,  an  increase  of 
553  over  the  preceding  year,  and  that  of  the  private  technical  schools 
was  366,  an  increase  of  20.  Approximately  95,000  pupils  were  en- 
rolled in  all  schools  of  this  kind,  exclusive  of  continuation  schools. 

TECHNICAL  CONTINUATION  SCHOOLS. 

These  schools  freely  admit  graduates  of  an  ordinary  elementary 
school,  or  boys  of  equal  attainments,  if  not  less  than  14  years  of 
age.  In  the  judgment  of  the  authorities,  even  this  requirement  may 
be  waived,  provided  the  applicant  is  under  no  further  obligation 
to  attend  an  ordinary  elementary  school.  Ages  and  maturity  of 
boys  in  attendance  on  these  schools  vary  greatly,  as  do  length  of 
courses,  school  periods,  season,  and  hours  of  the  school  sessions. 
All  are  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  individual  school  authorities. 
These  very  important  schools  in  1915-16  enrolled  407,600  male  pu- 


‘ Fiirurea  of  enrollment  were  not  arailable. 


EPUCATIOXAI.  ('03v"^l)ITT0XS  Tl\  JAPAIv. 


11 


pils  and  89.601  females,  an  inei’ease  of  nearly  50.000  of  both  sexes 
over  the  preceding  year. 

HIGHER  EDUCATION. 

No  change  in  the  courses  or  administration  of  higher  education 
is  to  be  chronicled  for  the  year  1915-16,  the  last  for  which  re- 
ports are  available.  Among  educational  ordinances  of  the  ministry 
of  public  instruction,  external  to  the  miperial  universities,  but 
closely  affecting  them,  was  that  which  placed  private  and  munici- 
pal institutions  of  higher  instruction  which  comply  with  standards 
laid  down  by  the  ministry  on  a par  with  the  imperial  universities, 
in  that  the  graduates  of  the  former  will  have  equal  advantages  in 
competing  for  civil-service  positions.  This  is  regarded  as  a govern- 
mental step  entailing  far-reaching  consequences  in  Government  serv- 
ice. Details  of  its  provisions  are  as  yet  unavailable. 

Considerable  material  and  financial  extensions  are  planned  for 
the  future.  The  Government  intends  to  devote  -14,000,000  yen 
934,000)  to  extend  the  agencies  of  higher  education,  this  sum  to  be 
a continuing  expenditure  extending  over  six  years  from  1919-20  to 
1924-25.  Of  this  sum,  39,500,000  j^en  ($18,690,750)  is  to  be  ex- 
pended on  the  building  and  extension  of  schoolhouses  and  4,500,000 
yen  ($2,243,250)  on  the  training  of  teachers.  It  is  proposed  that 
the  greater  part  of  the  latter  sum  be  appropriated  to  the  costs  of 
dispatching  and  maintaining  students  abroad. 

The  proposal  is  to  establish,  in  addition  to  the  higher  educational 
institutions  already  in  existence,  10  high  schools,  17  technical  and 
commercial  schools,  1 foreign-language  school,  and  1 school  of  phar- 
macy, besides  extending  the  present  colleges  and  organizing  new 
ones.  It  is  expected  that  the  program  will  be  completely  cari-ied 
into  execution  in  the  course  of  six  yeai’S,  and  that  teaching  at  the 
new  institutions  will  commence  in  1925. 

As  already  reported,  the  Emperor  has  contributed  the  sum  of 
10,000,000  yen  ($4,985,000)  toward  the  necessary  funds,  and  the 
balance  is  to  be  met  by  public  bonds  or  temporary  loans.  It  may  be 
added  that  in  the  educational  year  1917-18  about  56,000  students 
applied  for  admission  to  public  and  private  higher  and  special 
schools,  while  the  capacity  of  these  schools  was  only  sufficient  to  ac- 
commodate 14,000.^ 

JAPANESE  EDUCATIONAL  WORK  IN  FORMOSA." 

(A  sketch  of  provincial  educational  administration.) 

The  administration  of  the  schools  in  the  island  of  Formosa  by 
the  Japanese  Department  of  Education  has  constituted  throughout 
a remarkable  record  of  progress  in  the  face  of  serious  olwtacles. 

' .Japan  Chroniclp  of  -Tan.  8, 

^ This  sketcii  is  based  upon  the  repoi  t compiled  by  the  Department  of  Educational 
Affairs  of  the  Government  of  Formosa,  1916. 


12 


BIENJ^riAL  SURVEY  OE  EDUCATION,  1916-1918. 


Formosa  passed  to  Japan  by  cession  from  China  in  April,  1895. 
Very  similar  to  the  troubles  encountered  by  the  United  States  au- 
thorities upon  their  occupation  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  racial 
and  religious  problems  at  once  asserted  themselves,  taking  shape  in 
uprisings  and  forays  on  the  part  of  rebellious  natives.  After  two 
months  of  military  activities,  the  condition  of  the  island  was  re- 
garded as  suthciently  settled  to  allow  the  initiation  of  a system  of 
education.  The  provisional  office  for  the  Department  of  Education 
was  accordingly  opened  in  the  city  of  Taihoku;  and  the  active  di- 
rector at  once  proceeded  to  establish  schools  in  the  most  suitable 
localities,  housed  generally  in  the  temple  buildings,  which  were  the 
only  structures  left  intact. 

The  question  of  language  was  at  once  to  the  fore.  The  native 
children  of  Chinese  descent  were,  of  course,  averse  to  learning  the 
language  of  the  new  rulers.  The  patience  and  skill,  however,  of 
the  pioneer  teachers  were  beginning  to  triumph  and  to  show  results, 
when  the  smouldering  opposition  again  flared  out  in  open  violence. 
By  preconcerted  plot  an  attack  was  made  upon  all  remote  schools, 
and  many  teachers  were  killed.  But  the  plans  of  the  department 
were  retarded  onl}'^  for  a short  time.  By  imperial  ordinance  the 
organization  of  the  schools  was  put  under  military  protection,  new 
schools  were  built,  and  old  ones  I'estored  and  enlarged.  These  latter 
consisted  entirely  of  the  so-called  language  institutes,  located  in  the 
larger  towns,  and  grouped  around  the  nucleus  of  the  original  native 
private  schools,  called  the  “ reading  and  writing  halls.”  These  lan- 
guage institutes  now  became  the  basis  of  the  new  system.  Recognizing 
as  the  immediate  task  the  teaching  of  the  Japanese  language  to  the 
native  children,  the  department  called  for  Japanese  teachers  as  vol- 
unteers for  the  work'  in  Formosa.  This  picked  body  of  men  and 
women  received  intensive  instruction  for  three  months  in  the  native 
Formosan  language,  and  was  then  distributed  among  the  several 
schools. 

F ollowing  up  the  policy  of  preparing  teachers,  preferably  native, 
a normal-school  department  was  annexed  to  the  language  school 
proper,  and  to  it  fell  the  task  of  supplying  the  needed  teachers. 

With  the  pacification  of  the  island,  the  growth  of  the  elementary 
schools  was  so  rapid  that  the  Government  could  not  wait  for  the 
first  graduates  of  the  newly-established  normal  schools,  and  seven 
distinct  times  the  policy  of  training  Japanese  volunteers  for  the 
native  schools  was  repeated.  In  the  very  maintenance  of  the  latter, 
innumerable  difficulties,  inlierent  in  the  situation,  had  to  be  over- 
come. Chief  among  these  were  the  fickleness  of  the  native  popula- 
tion, which,  with  the  wearing  off  of  the  novelty  of  the  schools, 
became  wearied  with  the  alien  discipline  enforced  upon  them;  their 
superstitious  and  religious  scruples;  the  dissemination  of  false 


EDUCATIONAL  CONDITIONS  IN  JAPAN. 


13 


rumors  as  to  the  subjects  taught  and  methods  used ; the  deep-seated 
antipathy  of  the  influential  classes  to  Japan  and  all  things  Japa- 
nese, and  their  contempt  for  the  Japanese  teachers;  the  hostility  on 
the  part  of  the  teachers  and  parents  to  the  elimination  of  the  tradi- 
tionally beloved  “ reading  and  writing  halls,”  ivith  their  support  from 
fees  and  their  exclusive  concentration  upon  the  Chinese  classics; 
the  physical  difficulties  in  the  way  of  attendance  even  in  districts 
reduced  to  order;  and  the  teirorizing  of  even  favorable  parents  by 
threats  and  the  violence  of  predatory  gangs. 

In  the  face  of  all  these  difficulties,  however,  steady  luogress  was 
made.  The  military  impress  left  upon  the  schools  gradually  dis- 
appeared, as  the  respect  of  the  natives  for  schools  and  teachers  grew. 
A most  important  phase  of  the  change  of  attitude  Avas  the  reconcilia- 
tion of  the  natives  to  Formosan  youths  taking  Avork  in  the  S3^stem. 
The  work  of  these  pioneer  teachers  covers,  roughl}’,  three  3'ears, 
closing  in  1898,  when  the  Japanese  language  institutes  Avere  foi'ma!l3' 
organized  into  regular  public  schools.  B3'  successive  logical  ste])S, 
each  of  wider  scope,  the  administration  of  educational  a flairs  in 
Formosa  came  finall3^,  in  1911,  under  the  control  of  the  educational 
department  of  the  imperial  ciAul  GoA^ernment,  which  is  its  present 
status.  It  operates  in  two  sections,  a highlA’  centralized  govern- 
mental section,  and  a locall3^  representatiA^e  bod3’,  composed  of  men 
of  experience,  A^ested  with  special  powers  in  the  matter  of  school 
supjAort  and  finances. 

In  content  and  method,  practical  educational  Avork  in  Fonnosa 
has,  for  compelling  reasons  of  race  diA^ersities,  grouped  itself  under 
three  headings,  named  in  the  order  of  their  establishment  b3^  the 
Japanese  authorities:  (1)  Work  for  the  natiA'es  of  Chinese  descent; 
(2)  work  for  the  aborigines,  and  (3)  work  for  Japanese  children. 

Education  of  children  of  native  F orrnosans  of  Chinese  descent. — 
Elementary  general  or  public  education  for  the  children  of  natiA^e 
Formosans  of  Chinese  descent  constitutes  the  ke3'stone  of  the  S3'stem, 
and  has  undergone  many  modifications  and  revisions  before  reach- 
ing its  final  state.  Establishment  of  neAv  schools  had  at  first  been 
made  too  eas3",  and  had  been  accompanied  by  a corresponding  laxity 
in  providing  for  their  maintenance.  The  permission  of  the  Gover- 
nor General,  instead  of.  as  formerl3",  the  local  goA^ernor,  effected  a 
needed  centralization,  and  stopped  the  duplication  of  local  educa- 
tional plants.  The  age  for  attendance  was  extended  to  cover  from 
7 to  20  years,  instead  of  16;  but  only  6 years,  under  special  circum- 
stances shortened  to  I,  are  required;  and  a latitude  of  2 or  even  3 
years  is  allowed  beyond  the  age  of  7 years  for  beginning  school. 

The  subjects  taught  in  the  six  compulsory  years  are  identical  with 
those  in  the  imperial  schools.  In  the  shortened  four-3"ear  course 
science  is  omitted.  Courses  in  agi'iculture,  mechanics,  and  commerce 
are  added  wherever  approA^ed  by  the  authorities.  In  all  these  public 


14 


BIENNIAL  SURVEY  OE  EDUCATION,  1916-1918. 


schools  only  practical  ends  are  had  in  view.  Their  beneficial  results 
are  everywhere  evident..  The  Japanese  and  Formosans  are  bi-ought 
more  closely  together;  the  importance  of  the  Japanese  language  is 
felt  more  and  more  keenly.  Many  public  schools  have  been  estab- 
lished at  the  request  of  the  natives  themselves.  Another  interestincf 
formative  result  that  has  also  manifested  itself  is  the  steadily  in- 
creasing number  of  well-trained  Japanese  teachers  attracted  to  the 
Formosan  sc'hools. 

Higher  instruction  for  natiA'e  boys  is  represented  by  a few  middle 
schools  of  four  years,  admitting  boys  of  13  who  have  completed  the 
fourth  year  of  the  public  schools,  by  girls’  schools  attached  to  the 
language  schools,  and  by  higher  Japanese  language  departments  at- 
tached to  the  language  schools  for  boys  and  girls.  The  unique  feature 
of  this  grade  of  instruction,  induced  by  difference  of  conditions  from 
those  in  Japan  proper,  is  the  training  offered  in  them  for  teachers 
of  public  elementary  schools.  This  is  done  by  means  of  an  annexed 
normal  school  of  two  divisions,  the  higher  for  prospective  Japanese 
teachers,  with  special  training  in  the  native  Formosan  language,  and 
the  lower  for  native  teachers. 

Industrial  education  for  native  Formosans  is  provided  in  the 
Industrial  Training  Institute,  the  industrial  department  of  the 
language  school  at  Taihoku,  and  two  experimental  farm  schools  not 
under  the  Department  of  Education,  but  under  the  direct  control 
of  the  Governor  General.  A further  step  is  the  provision  of  higher 
general  education,  combined  with  the  industrial,  in  the  Japanese 
language  course  of  the  language  school  at  Taihoku,  though,  as  3^ct, 
the  demand  for  this  by  native  Formosans  is  limited. 

An  interesting  survival  from  pre- Japanese  days,  as  well  as  a sig- 
nificant proof  of  the  wisdom  of  the  Japanese  authorities,  is  the  exist- 
ence of  the  “ reading  and  writing  halls.”  These  are  private  schools 
established  and  conducted  by  native  teachers.  They  have  weathered 
very  adverse  conditions;  they  were  long  regarded  by  the  Japanese 
authorities  as  dangerous  to  Japanese  rule;  and  they  were  often  near 
extinction.  But  they  always  maintained  an  influence  too  strong  to 
be  ignored.  Socially  and  ethnologically,  they  are  the  hvst  and  most 
typical  reiiresentatives  of  the  Formosan  civilization.  They  are 
allowed  individual  independence  and  great  latitude  in  courses  and 
methods.  Each  is  under  the  nominal  control  of  the  local  civil  author- 
ity, which  generally  pursues  the  good-natured  policy  of  encouraging 
their  adoption  of  modern  subjects,  especially  the  Japanese  language 
and  arithmetic,  rather  than  forcibly  compelling  it,  and  seeks  by 
tactful  methods  to  bring  about  a closer  acquaintance  and  union  with 
the  public-school  teachers  and  schools.  The  schoolhouse  is  generally 
the  residence  of  tlie  master,  or  some  buildings  connected  with  the 
local  Chinese  temple,  the  religious  a.ssociations  of  the  school  of  this 


EDUCATIONAL  CONDITIONS  IN  JAPAN, 


15 


type  constituting  one  of  its  strongest  holds  upon  the  initives.  Chil- 
dren are  generally  admitted  at  7 and  continue  until  14  or  15.  The 
center  of  work  is  of  course  the  Chinese  classics,  with  no  fixed  course 
outlined;  penmanship  is  stressed  in  connection  with  the  literaiw 
Avork.  AdA-anced  pupils  learn  recitation,  composition,  and  versifi- 
cation, all  rigorously  based  upon  the  classics. 

Despite  the  wishes  of  the  Japanese  educational  administration, 
these  schools  increased  in  the  period  1912  to  1915  from  541  to  fill, 
and  their  enrollment  from  16,000  to  19,000,  in  round  numbers,  an  en- 
rollment of  almost  exactly  one-third  of  the  total  enrollment  of  natiA^e 
Formosans  in  the  official  public  schools.  This  constitutes  Avhat  is 
apparently  the  only  problem  that  has  baffled  the  Japanese  educa- 
tional department  in  its  career  in  Formosa. 

Elementm^  school,  for  (Aborigines. — Ea’cii  greater  conseiwatism  had 
to  be  encountered  in  dealing  with  the  partly  ciAulized  aborigines  than 
has  been  seen  in  the  case  of  the  natiA’es  of  Chinese  descent.  With  the 
sweeping  reorganization  of  the  primitiA-e  language  institutes  into  the 
public  school  system,  exception  had  frankly  to  be  made  for  the 
aborigines.  Their  primitiA  e language  institutes  were  retained,  and 
after  many  years  and  tentative  modifications.  deA’eloped  into  a pub- 
lic school  system  quite  different  from  that  in  operation  for  the 
Chinese  descendants.  Only  four  years'  attendance  is  re(]uired:  the 
subjects  taught  are  only  morals,  Japanese,  and  arithmetic.  Agricul- 
ture, manual  training,  and  singing  may  be  added,  in  the  case  of 
tribes  intellectually  more  advanced.  Supreme  control  is  A^ested  in 
the  local  civil  authorities,  who  are  alloAved  Avide  discretion  in  all 
matters  concerning  these  schools.  Children  are  admitted  at  8 years 
of  age.  An  encouraging  growth  in  the  popularity  of  these  schools, 
and  increase  in  numbers,  has  been  evident.  Native  aboriginal  youths 
have  come  forward  as  candidates  for  teachers;  approximately  3,000 
pupils  were  enrolled  in  1915  in  23  schools,  an  increase  of  over  500 
pupils  since  1913. 

Education*  of  Jnpamese  children  in  Formosa. — The  education  of 
Japanese  cliildren  whose  parents  are  residents  of  Formosa  is  con- 
ducted along  substantially  the  same  lines  as  prevail  in  imperial 
Japan  proper. 

For  administration  purposes,  and  by  imperial  ordinance,  the 
tfovernor  General  of  the  island  corresponds  to  the  imperial  })re- 
fectural  governor,  and  the  local  civil  authority  to  those  of  toAvns  and 
cities  in  Japan  proper.  Encouragement  is  offered  to  promising  pupils 
to  proceed  to  the  imperial  schools,  and  this  is  made  easy  by  close 
articulation  of  subjects  and  courses.  It  is  interesting  to  note  also  that 
an  increasing  number  of  native  Formosan  students  go  each  year 
to  complete  their  education  in  the  schools  of  Imperial  Japan.  The 
Government  is  alive  to  the  importance  of  encouraging  this  tendency. 


16 


BIENNIAL  SURVEY  OF  EDUCATION,  1916-1918. 


and  in  1907  the  oflice  of  student  superintendent  in  Tokyo  was  created, 
with  especial  charge  of  the  proficiency  and  conduct  of  all  Formosan 
students  resident  in  Japan.  With  this  official,  the  authorities  of  all 
institutions  enrolling  Formosan  students  must  closely  cooperate. 

As  has  been  indicated,  the  Japanese  Government,  soon  after  its  oc- 
cupation of  Formosa,  recognized  that  the  training  of  native  teachers 
for  the  native  schools  was  a matter  of  vital  necessity  if  the  natives 
were  to  be  won  over  to  acceptance  of  the  public  schools,  and,  through 
them,  of  the  Japanese  rule  and  language.  An  index  of  the  attitude 
of  the  natives  in  both  these  respects  was  constituted  by  the  number 
of  Formosan  youth  who  came  forward  as  teacher  candidates.  Prog- 
ress in  this  respect  has  been  steady  and  gratifying,  619  graduates  of 
such  training  having  gone  into  school  work  in  the  13  years  of  its 
existence.  Several  local  institutions  have  been  abolished.  Normal 
instruction  for  natives  is  now  organized  solely  in  the  B (or  lower) 
division  of  the  public-school  course  in  the  normal-school  department 
of  the  Language  School  at  Taihoku.  Candidates  from  14  to  years 
of  age,  with  certificates  of  graduation  from  the  six  years’  public 
school,  are  admitted  after  examination  upon  elementary  Japanese 
and  arithmetic.  The  four  years’  course  covers  ethics,  pedagogy, 
Japanese  language,  Chinese  classics,  geography,  mathematics,  science, 
drawing,  music,  agriculture,  and  gymnastics.  Manual  training  and 
commercial  subjects  are  optional.  All  expenses  are  defrayed  by  the 
Japanese  Government.  “ The  aim  of  the  educational  work  of  this 
department  is  to  make  the  graduates  the  embodiment  of  the  ideal  of 
the  public-school  education  which  is  to  bring  about  the  dilfusion  of 
the  Japanese  language,  the  cultivation  of  the  spirit  of  loyalty  and 
obedience,  and  the  encouragement  of  the  habit  of  honest  labor  among 
the  people.”  “The  source  of  general  education  in  Formosa”  is  the 
significant  name  bestowed  upon  it. 

For  teachers  already  actively  engaged,  teachers’  training  extension 
work  during  the  summers  is  systematically  forwarded  by  the  educa- 
tion authorities.  Under  the  direct  control  of  the  Government,  in- 
structors and  lecturers  travel  the  round  of  assigned  circuits,  a system 
which  has  advantageously  supplanted  the  old  one  of  gathering  many 
pupils  into  one  place.  The  other  side  of  the  wmrk,  that  done  by  the 
local  authorities,  is  probably  more  successful  in  reaching  closely  the 
mass  of  native  teachers.  All  native  and  J apanese  teachers  of  the  dis- 
trict meet,  and  a point  is  made  of  inviting  all  teachers  of  the  old- 
style  “ reading  and  writing  halls.”  Perhaps  no  other  one  influence 
is  so  potent  in  leading  the  way  to  some  realization — however  embry- 
onic at  present — of  the  essential  unity  of  Japanese  education  in 
Formosa. 


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